Section 3: Effective education for citizenship in practice
3.5 Progression in education for citizenship
A key challenge for practitioners is to interpret the learning outcomes for education for citizenship in terms appropriate to the experience and maturity of learners. Whilst there is no intention of specifying rigid age- and stage-related outcomes for education for citizenship here, some helpful guidelines for progression in relevant areas already exist in 5-14 and other subject documentation. The examples of school practice that follow are intended to show successful approaches at different stages of education. The schools and centres featured are at different stages of development in their work, but all have begun to translate some of the ideas associated with education for citizenship in ways appropriate to their learners and communities.
Opportunities in the 3-5 curriculum
Early education makes a vital contribution to developing and broadening the range of children's learning experiences beyond those highly influential experiences of learning in the home and community. Children are helped to develop confidence, self-esteem and social, intellectual and creative abilities. They grow in their awareness of, and respect for, the environment and differences between people. 'Scottish curriculum guidelines for children aged 3-5 are based on four guiding principles: that the curriculum should be in the best interests of children, that it should recognise the central importance of relationships, that all children need to be included, and that account should be taken of understandings of the way children learn' (A Curriculum Framework for Children 3-5, Scottish CCC, 1999). These principles have given rise to practice that is compatible with the goals of education for citizenship. For example:
- children are encouraged to discuss and voice their opinion about a range of issues, such as the nursery environment and rules of behaviour
- a variety of expressive arts is used to encourage children to express their feelings, ideas and theories about the world around them
- work that actively involves parents in disadvantaged communities in the education of their children.
Children's views
Stirling Council's policy commitment to listening to and valuing young people's views is reflected at all stages of learning, including early education. For instance, at Park Drive Nursery 3-5-year-olds are encouraged to identify areas of the nursery that they like and dislike, and also areas where they would like to have adult support. At Croftamie Nursery, small children are involved in planning and recalling their nursery day, and in evaluating and changing their nursery environment and outdoor area. In the words of the Head: The benefits have been many. In particular, it has given us a sense of belonging within the community, and a greater understanding of each other, children, parents, staff and community.
Learning to express yourself
Six Falkirk Council day nurseries are linked in a project that aims to encourage children's development by involving them in expressive arts activities. The project has yielded evidence of very young children's ability to communicate effectively using expressive arts, with particular benefits noticeable amongst some children with special needs.
Involving Parents
Greengables Nursery School and Family Centre in the Craigmillar area of Edinburgh provides a stimulating, supportive learning environment for children and families. As children take part in activities designed to develop confidence, self esteem and respect for others, adults are offered a programme of recreational and vocational education, as well as access to a wide range of advice and information on family-related subjects. Activities, such as Cooking for Tots, Babies Play and modules in subjects like child development and classroom assistant training, dovetail with nursery activities and offer parents rich opportunities to learn more about how children learn and to become actively involved in the education of their children.
These learning experiences underpin children's sense of belonging, and lay a firm foundation for their growing understanding of rights and responsibilities and their ability to participate effectively in society.
Opportunities from 5 to 14
Schools build upon and extend children's early education experiences in primary schools and the early years of secondary schooling as young people follow programmes of study based on 5-14 guidelines. As we have seen these offer many opportunities for developing the learning outcomes associated with education for citizenship. Primary schools have also made considerable progress in providing opportunities for young people to take part in decision making both at classroom and at whole school level. Examples include:
- imaginative developments in the teaching of 'people in society' and other 5-14 outcomes related to education for citizenship
- activities that help pupils to understand and take some responsibility for their relations with the wider community
- projects encouraging environmental responsibility
- creating opportunities for the responsible exercise of personal choice
- activities that encourage children to offer feedback on approaches to learning and teaching.
Studies within specific curricular areas
At Kingswells Primary School in Aberdeen, a strong citizenship thread runs through both environmental studies and personal and social education programmes of study from P1 to P7. The programmes draw on a wide range of published, school and community-based resources to give children a very rich introduction to contemporary issues and their own rights and responsibilities as citizens. Resources which have proved particularly valuable, and have been integrated within the school's approach to education for citizenship include TAG Theatre Company's Sense of Community project and Police Box, a resource for primary PSE developed by Grampian Police Community Development Department.
Making small but real differences
Pupils at Ferguslie Primary School in Renfrewshire can point to some small but real improvements in school as a result of their work on the Pupil Council. Colour co-ordinated homework baskets and jotters (to avoid problems when jotters go in the wrong basket), newly re-painted blackboards (to avoid sqeaks), and a school shop now being set up and managed by pupils in association with a local bank (in response to pupils' concerns about missing pencils and other essential materials), are all the result of helpful recommendations channelled through the Pupil Council. The Council is organised conventionally with two elected representatives per class, but great care has been taken to protect Pupil Council time (weekly during the school day), to consult widely with all pupils, and to allow for report back and discussion time in classes and at monthly assemblies.
Children's views on teaching and learning
Personal Learning Plans were identified as a key priority when Thornliebank Primary School in East Renfrewshire became a new community school. Amongst other objectives these encourage pupils to evaluate the curriculum and community learning opportunities, and to set personal targets for attainment, attendance and timekeeping. After a short pilot programme and one full year of operation there is evidence of increased pupil motivation, of teachers feeling they know their pupils better, and of parents more able to support their children.
National support for education for citizenship
The Scottish Parliament's Young People's Health Congress involved S2 representatives of approximately 40 schools from all parts of Scotland. Pupils were invited to Parliament, and acted as MSPs for a day, debating a range of health-related resolutions in the parliamentary chamber and in committee. Other pupils acted as school journalists and sat in the press gallery. Pupils were well-supported by parliamentary officials and expert witnesses, but the high quality of debate was particular testament to the preparatory work undertaken as part of the project in schools. The event was organised by the Scottish Parliament Education Service, with support from MSPs, officials, youth workers and teachers from Modern Studies, English and other departments.
Opportunities post-14
Education for citizenship assumes a new significance post-14 when young people face many of the issues associated with independent living in increasingly practical forms. Many of the issues they face in respect of further study, finding a job, leaving home, managing their money, understanding the law and relating to people in authority demand wider knowledge and understanding of contemporary issues and decision-making processes. Young adults need to be able to combine that knowledge and understanding with a wide range of skills, competences and values in order to be able to negotiate the barriers to satisfying and responsible participation in social, economic and cultural life.
Subject choice presents secondary schools with a number of challenges in respect of education for citizenship. First, the diversity of individual timetables, whilst suited to the different aspirations that young people have on leaving school, makes it difficult to account for development of the full range of learning outcomes associated with education for citizenship. Second, there is the specific question of how to provide for continued acquisition of the broad range of political, economic, social and cultural knowledge and understanding that is essential to progressive development of capability for citizenship. Third, the importance to young people of subject qualifications for entry to higher or further education or the labour market tends to leave relatively little time for school activities whose outcomes are not formally assessed.
The response to this situation is not to stipulate any single course of study of 'citizenship education' as part of each student's core programme. Such an approach has a number of drawbacks. In practical terms, it would have the effect of restricting the scope for student choice and flexibility of provision and could also create practical difficulties for curriculum planning in the post-14 stages. Most importantly, to appear to locate 'citizenship education' in one particular post-14 course of study would be inconsistent with the broad view of education for citizenship being advanced in this paper. Some schools have developed specific courses in 'citizenship'. Where courses in what schools wish to call 'citizenship' can be satisfactorily resourced, they may make a useful contribution to a school's overall approach to education for citizenship. If adopted, however, they must take their place alongside other opportunities for development of capability for citizenship, including strategies for student participation in decision-making, studies in other curricular areas, cross-curricular learning experiences and link activities with the wider community.
A range of strategies could be considered to ensure full entitlement to education for citizenship post-14. Schools may find one or more of the following useful in providing a focus for their own development.
- Examination, through curriculum audit, of how far various combinations of core' and optional subjects can provide an adequate basis for developing knowledge and understanding related to citizenship. This approach might indicate a need for curriculum inserts in order to enrich subjects where such opportunities are perceived, or for the school to undertake cross-curricular activities outwith the subject curriculum.
- Using the expertise of staff in areas such as modern studies, science, technology or ICT, and where possible expertise outwith the school, to contribute to parts of courses typically taken by all students, for example a PSE course or dedicated core skills units.
- Encouraging take-up of appropriate units and courses in the National Qualifications framework as part of students' individual learning programmes; this might include units that emphasise links between core skills and citizenship issues.
- Examining how far the themes and issues associated with education for citizenship can be addressed through more appropriate and extensive contextualisation of common areas of study such as mathematics and language and communication.
- Closer examination of the way in which community involvement activities and local investigations can enhance not only young people's skills and develop their values and creativity, but also reinforce and develop their knowledge and understanding of social and political processes.
It is expected that the strategies adopted will vary from school to school, depending, for example, on local circumstances, the preferences of students and the particular resources of expertise that staff can offer. In the longer term, curriculum audits and other approaches may well lead to questions about the content and focus of post-14 courses generally, in the light of the overarching imperatives of education for citizenship.
Curricular issues of continuity and progression are but one part of a secondary school's approach to education for citizenship. Participation in decision making, cross-curricular activities and working with the local and wider community have continuing importance. Some imaginative approaches to education for citizenship in secondary schools include:
- Northfield Academy's Community Forum, and its use of the Higher Still PSE framework
- St Ninian's High School' s cross-curricular approach to PSE and pupil consultation
- Alva Academy's work on global citizenship
- Drummond Community High School's work in anti-racist education
- Merkland's School's work to include young people with special educational needs in the life of the local community
- Our Lady's High School, Motherwell and the Scottish Catholic International Aid Fund (SCIAF)'s multi-disciplinary approach to a development education topic
- Woodfarm High School's work with Save the Children in Scotland to develop its pupil council.
Relating curriculum and community
Northfield Academy in Aberdeen has an extensive 'citizenship' programme for young people in S5. This includes an annual community forum, when all S5 pupils meet to discuss issues in their local community, and feed back requests and recommendations to local politicians, including the Lord Provost, the local MSP and councillor and representatives of Grampian Police. Practical outcomes include setting up of a youth café, student involvement in police training, and correspondence links with young people in the city's twin oil capitals. The Youth Forum is complemented now by a number of courses based on the Higher Still framework for PSE, which allows a smaller number of pupils to study community issues in greater depth.
Using subject expertise to develop PSE
St Ninian's High School in East Renfrewshire has a PSE programme that is audited annually and is delivered through subject departments. As part of this approach the school encourages citizenship contributions from inspanidual subjects, either through their mainstream syllabus or through 'inserts'. This approach is complemented by thrice yearly seminars for every year group, when every pupil is encouraged to express his/her views on a range of school issues identified by either staff or pupils. Issues have included what makes a good teacher, or a good class. Gender differences and anti-bullying have also been discussed, and pupils have evaluated school programmes of work related to study skills and drugs education.
Global citizenship
Alva Academy in Clackmannanshire made the decision some two years ago to explore what citizenship meant to young people in the UK, Europe and beyond. In September 2000 an international conference was held in the school involving staff and students from sixteen European countries and South Africa, with the theme of 'Global Citizenship in 2000 and beyond'. This conference involved presentations and workshops on a range of topics from the responsibility and influence of the media to student representation and decision making. Other issues such as justice, peace and equal opportunities were also explored, paying particular heed to practices and stages of development in different countries and cultures. This event was seen as only a launching point for such debate and a network of contacts has been established as a platform for young people to develop their thinking and ideas: a follow-up is being planned for Finland in November 2002.
Improving participation in decision making
Woodfarm High School in East Renfrewshire has worked with Save the Children in Scotland to strengthen its approach to consultation with young people. Its pupil councils are now open to all interested pupils, with around 120 pupils attending. Questionnaires and focus groups are used to extend consultation even further, and the Council has successfully argued for a number of whole school activities, including a series of seminars involving all S2 pupils in a consultation on bullying. The school's approach includes strategies to involve teachers more closely in decision making, a need identified through Save the Children's staff evaluation of the pupil councils.
Citizenship in a school for pupils with special educational needs
Merkland School works to promote inclusion by providing opportunities for meaningful pupil participation in the wider community. As well as taking part in a thriving Enterprise programme and a wide range of sporting and cultural activities, young people at Merkland run a weekly coffee shop for members of the community, and both visit and host local groups, such as playgroups and pensioners' groups. In the words of the headteacher:
By the same token members of the community become aware that young people with special educational needs also have competencies and potential.
A whole school approach to anti-racist education
Drummond Community High School in Edinburgh has a long record of work in equal opportunities and anti-racist education. Staff at the school have developed the Drummond Equality Game, a popular board game, played and discussed with all S1 pupils with senior pupil support, that helps young people understand how the dice are loaded against certain sections of the community. Multicultural support groups are held for ethnic minority pupils in S1 to have some time together each week with a guidance teacher and youth worker to explain and discuss any problems arising in their new school. Senior pupils have been involved in writing pupil versions of the school's equal opportunities policy, and equality issues figure strongly in staff development and in school self-evaluation.
A cross-curricular approach to development education
Our Lady's High School, Motherwell, North Lanarkshire, have worked with SCIAF and the Kamwokya community in Uganda to heighten awareness of development issues in Africa. A coordinated cross-curricular approach has so far involved work in RE, Geography, Modern Studies, Art, Music, PE, Home Economics, English, Maths, Biology, and Chemistry departments, with others hoping to join in the future. Departmental work has been reinforced by a well prepared and successful whole school focus activity, a performance by pupils of African music, dance, storytelling, cooking and development education simulations, together with displays of departmental work, called Out of Africa. The event was organised by the school with support from the parent-teacher association and the school board for parents and others in the community.
A noteworthy feature of these examples is the way in which a number of contexts are addressed in the same activity, for example: community involvement and participation in decision making at Northfield Academy; knowledge and understanding of contemporary issues and pupil consultation at St Ninian's High School. At Drummond Community High School, work in equal opportunities links not only contexts but also pupils of all ages, with senior pupils contributing both to development of the knowledge and understanding of S1 pupils, as well as to school decision-making in the broadest sense.
Development and management of courses and activities like these is a demanding professional activity. It is likely that, particularly in secondary schools, there will be a need to define specific roles with regard to education for citizenship within the senior management team, and for a coordinating member of staff or department to be designated.