Sectarianism: learning from other forms of discrimination

Different types of discrimination exist and can co-exist. Individual/personal discrimination has less social impact than group/cultural discrimination (although this in no way detracts from the harm that it can cause). Institutional discrimination can be self-perpetuating and pervasive across cultures, whilst constitutional discrimination, passing laws which exclude or specifically target certain groups, can be the most significant of all. The diagram below illustrates these levels: 

Where constitutional and institutional discrimination are left unchallenged abuse is likely to go unpunished; where indifference or endorsement pertains at state level, matters may escalate towards routine persecution and ultimately to genocide.

The table below was devised by Gordon Allport (The Nature of Prejudice, 1954, revised 1979) and outlines the range of impact which discrimination such as sectarianism can have.

There is an area of overlap between sectarianism and many other forms of discrimination, in particular, racism. The reason for this is the preconceived notions which people hold regarding others, e.g. most people have presumptions about which countries follow which religions. Whilst many countries do have predominant religions, most also have some form of religious diversity, whether that is within the predominant faith or whether it relates to other belief systems. As global diversity increases so does religious and racial diversity, and racial diversity within religions.

Through immigration, some people choose to take up the religion of the country to which they have moved; others decide to change religion in their own country for a variety of reasons. Whatever the reason for change, it means that an increasing number of people and ethnic groups practise a variety of religions which a stereotypical image would belie.

The Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia report on Race and Ethnicity also looks at religion. Whilst it has been argued that race and religion are two completely separate things, religion being an individual choice, indeed one protected by the ECHR article 9, whilst race is a matter of birth, the British Council report (2002) Changing Race Relations: Race and Ethnicity, argues otherwise. It states:

If one considers religion from the perspectives of the social sciences, however, it is clear that religious identity is frequently not chosen and not primarily a matter of inner commitment to certain distinctively religious beliefs. On the contrary, many human beings are born into communities or identity groupings where various religious observances, symbols and practices are extremely significant for maintaining a sense of corporate belonging. When this is the case, individuals are free to disown the tradition to which they belong only if (a) they are happy to be cut off from the community into which they have been born and which has nurtured them and (b) there is an alternative community which will fully welcome them and give them a sense of belonging.

The report also refers to the concept of religious atheists, e.g. Catholic or Protestant atheists or secular Jews. For these people religion is more a matter of historical and community identification rather than personal belief and active participation. In this context sectarianism can occur on the presumption of connection with a specific religious grouping rather than actual involvement in its forms of worship. This is why the legislation against religious intolerance in Scotland provides for a basis of 'presumed affiliation to a religious grouping'.

Other forms of religious intolerance in Scotland include anti-Semitism, hatred or intolerance of Jews, and Islamophobia, hatred or intolerance of Muslims. Whilst these forms of religious intolerance are less evident in Scotland than that between Catholic and Protestant beliefs this does not mean that they are less prevalent. Islamophobia in particular appears to be increasing, with attacks on mosques and on people perceived to be Muslim. This has happened since the terrorist attacks in the USA , the UK and elsewhere alleged to have been carried out by Islamic fundamentalists. This perception has led to a hostile interpretation of Islam despite these attacks being denounced by leading Muslim clerics as being against the teachings of the Koran and against the principles of Islam.

Often sectarianism and religious intolerance can be linked to fundamentalism. Karen Armstrong (2001) states that fundamentalisms follow a certain pattern: 'they are embattled forms of spirituality, which have emerged as a response to a perceived crisis. They are engaged in a conflict with enemies whose secularist polices and beliefs seem inimical to religion itself … Fundamentalists do not regard this battle as a conventional political struggle, but experience it as a cosmic war between the forces of good and evil.'

This fundamentalism can then accentuate sectarianism and religious intolerance as people view the fundamentalists as being the true face of that religion or denomination and base their views upon their actions e.g. the rise of Islamophobia is linked to the terrorist attacks claimed to have been carried out by Islamic fundamentalists. However, these people should more correctly be described as fanaticists, rather than fundamentalists. Fundamentalists adhere to what they take to be the basic tenets of their religion and follow them to the letter. Fanaticists are extremists in any cause they choose to espouse and will resort to extreme measures to achieve their objectives.

A particular and acute form of sectarianism develops when fundamentalists become fanatical about the need for their beliefs to be imposed upon others. Since such tendencies exist in all the three main monotheistic religions of Christianity, Islam and Judaism, all these faiths need to guard against such developments.