Islamophobia
The term 'Islamophobia' is a new addition to the English language. It was used for the first time in print in 1991, but it only began to be known after the report published by the Runnymede Trust in 1997. The most common definition of Islamophobia is: 'Unfounded hostility towards Islam, and therefore fear or dislike of Muslims'.
The Runnymede report further identifies eight components that they believe define Islamophobia,
Islam is seen as a monolithic bloc, static and unresponsive to change.
Islam is seen as separate and 'other'. It does not have values in common with other cultures, is not affected by them and does not influence them.
Islam is seen as inferior to the West. It is seen as barbaric, irrational, primitive and sexist.
Islam is seen as violent, aggressive, threatening, supportive of terrorism and engaged in a 'clash of civilisations'.
Islam is seen as a political ideology and is used for political or military advantage.
Criticisms made of the West by Islam are rejected out of hand.
Hostility towards Islam is used to justify discriminatory practices towards Muslims and exclusion of Muslims from mainstream society.
Anti-Muslim hostility is seen as natural or normal.
The findings of the report have been noted to echo anti-Semitic attitudes which were prevalent in early twentieth century Europe.
Hence, Islamophobia during the Crusades was different from Islamophobia during the colonial era. During the period of the Crusades, Islam and the Muslim world were the 'super power' of their time. They were an advanced civilisation, which the West at the time feared. The purpose of the Crusades was to alter the balance of power and to position the Islamic world as a religion to be feared. Indeed, Islam was seen as the anti-Christ movement and a complete antithesis of the then Christian West. Hence, during this time Islamophobia manifested itself as a fear of Islam and Muslims, whereas, the colonial era saw a shift in the balance of power and Muslims becoming 'subjects'. Islamophobia now took on the guise of hostility and discriminatory practices against Muslims.
A report published by the Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia on 'Islamophobia and Race Relations' notes that hostility has taken different forms in different contexts.Increase in Islamophobia
It may be perceived by some westerners/Europeans that an alienated Muslim community is increasingly retreating to a culturally/religiously exclusive way of life, in opposition to liberal, western ideals. Two recent examples of this are the debates around the publication of the Jyllends-Posten cartoons which depicted the Prophet Muhammad as a terrorist and the media coverage of issues relating to the veil (niqab).
The debates have led to notions of the incompatibility of Islam to British values, for example, the inappropriateness of Muslim women who observe the niqab [face covering] working in public related jobs. The negative emphasis of discussions around Islam can shape how a community is viewed by the rest of society. One of the consequences of such a public debate was that women in niqab were subject of physical Islamophobic attacks.
The Runnymede report further summarises some main reasons for an increase in Islamophobia since the presence of Muslim communities in Britain:
The large and visible growth of Muslim communities since the 1950s and 1960s and the subsequent establishment of communities in Britain.
Increased economic advantage on the world stage of oil-rich Muslim countries.
The abuse of human rights by so called 'Muslim' regimes who justify their repression using Islamic beliefs.
The emergence of political and militant groups who claim to be motivated by Islamic values to carry out 'terrorist' attacks as a means to justifying an end.
A high percentage of refugees and asylum seekers are Muslim. Negative media reporting has resulted in a link being made between 'Muslims', 'refugees' and perceived issues of a rise in crime, an economic takeover, etc.
The predominant secular outlook on religion as a whole by the media has an impact on how British Muslims express themselves and how they are perceived.
Islamophobia can manifest itself in any number of ways:
Physical attacks.
Verbal abuse.
Negative stereotypes; media, political language.
Discrimination in employment recruitment practices.
Insensitivity in service provision: education, health.
Lack of acknowledgement that the Muslim community is economically and educationally the worst off – poverty and social exclusion.
No protection up until recently against discrimination on grounds of religion.
Recent laws curtailing civil liberties which directly affect the Muslim community.
UK foreign policy on world conflicts – the widespread perception that the 'war on terror' is a 'war on Islam', and the synonymous use of the words 'terrorist', 'Muslim', 'fundamentalist' and 'Islam'.
These broad underlying causes create a multitude of further complicated and inter-related issues that impact on the increase in Islamophobia in Britain.
Islamophobia: A Form of Xenophobia and links to Racism
Islamophobia is a form of religious discrimination, which bears similarity to racism and xenophobia. In the Runnymede definition, Islam is viewed as the ‘other’, foreign to Britain and British culture. Much xenophobia and racism is premised on the concept of ‘other’ and ‘fear of other’.
Islamophobia exists as a form of discrimination and prejudice. There is evidence which not only confirms the existence and manifestation of Islamophobia in various forms, but also indicates that it has been on the increase since the heightened link between Muslims, Islam and terrorism.
Particularly since September 11th 2001 and the London bombings of July 2005 there has been marked increase in physical and verbal abuse toward Muslims in the UK. There has been a recorded rise in hostility and Islamophobia toward the Muslim community. The following selection of articles published after the London bombings report this increase:
Religions in fear over the 9/11 bigots
Scottish hate crimes soar after bombings
Two-thirds of victims of religiously aggravated crimes are Muslim
Hate crimes soar after bombings
Six arrested over attacks on Muslim dairy
Attacks on Muslim rise after veils row
Prayers at school lead to abuse
Universities urged to spy on Muslims
Racist slogans at university prayer room
Targeted profiling of Muslim at Glasgow Airport
Nun convicted of religious harassment against Muslims
Crude stereotyping is fuelling IslamophobiaIn Scotland, the reported number of racist attacks rose from 359 to 438 in August directly after the London Bombings. According to the Independent, “The Association of Chief Police Officers in Scotland said 64 of these attacks could be directly linked to the London attacks 'because of what was said or written at the time of the incident'”. Across the UK, police reported a six-fold increase in hate crimes. Government consultations and research have all suggested the rise in hostility toward Muslims.
Although Islamophobic media reporting existed before September the 11th, since then and the London bombings, Islamophobic reporting has increased. There is daily negative reporting of Islam and Muslims, which is having an adverse effect on the Muslim community.
A recent Economic and Social Research funded survey in Scotland revealed that Muslims 'experience prejudice and discrimination, especially in connection with the implementation of legislation and policies against terrorism'. Furthermore, a recent report and recommendations by the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance states that:
Muslim communities of the United Kingdom continue to experience societal prejudice, discrimination across a wide range of crucial areas, such as employment and the criminal justice system, as well as harassment and violence.
Experience of Islamophobia in Scotland
This section seeks to highlight some of the experiences of Islamophobia for Muslims in Scotland. The purpose of including this information is to provide a picture of some of these experiences in order to better understand the context in which Islamophobia has manifested itself. These experiences can also be used as quotes for discussion within educational contexts.
Unlike sectarianism, all of the participants understood the meaning of the term 'Islamophobia' as well as how it has implications for them as Muslims.
When people are scared of Islam… [Female, 21]
…Scared of what Islam means. [Female, 19]
It's hatred of Islam… like xenophobia… especially after 9/11 and 7/7 Muslims condemned the attacks but we are still looked at with suspicion. [Male, 23]
An irrational fear of Islam and the people who practice the faith… when people at university or work, like ordinary places they look and speak to you differently. [Female, 20]
Islamophobia is like racism, but I think a more accurate definition is a fear of Muslims and Islam. [Male, 65]
Islam is seen as a threat – a clash of civilisations… people staring at you because you look different. [Female, 35]
Phobias are being scared of something, so I guess Islamophobia would be being scared of Islam. [Male, 13]
Being scared of Islam… when the media and society view and portray Islam in a distorted and misunderstood way and it's accepted because of ignorance which leads to ignorance and unfounded views. [Female, 27]
A term created by the media which refers to people who are unaware and fearful of Islamic practices, but which don't reflect Islam. [Male, 26]
One participant mentioned that she lived in Easterhouse, which is perceived to be a racist area in Glasgow, but that she has never experienced Islamophobia living there. The participants felt that whilst the experience of Islamophobia is not as severe in Scotland as it is elsewhere, it exists and can grow if left unaddressed. Some of the participants mentioned that they had never experienced Islamophobia.
It's not as bad as other places but I wouldn't say it doesn't exist at all. [Male, 26]
I think things are definitely worse since 7/7…mainly in the media but it affects us 'cos people have a really bad image of Islam. [Female, 19]
This bad perception of Islam has always been there, I remember during the Gulf War what happened then, even before there has always been some sort of hostility, but I do think in Scotland we are still lucky. [Male, 65]
I've never experienced someone harassing me because of my religion, or even someone being scared of what my religion means. [Female, 19]
I personally have never had any experience of Islamophobia, but that's just me, I am sure it exists… I know friends who have been affected… maybe it's because in Dundee there's not that many Muslims, I just haven't seen it. [Male, 23]
It was felt that Islamophobia is now an added issue, along with racism, which has always existed. Furthermore, some participants expressed that they felt Islamophobia was a bigger issue compared with racism as Islam and Muslims have been catapulted negatively onto the world stage and the political agenda. Frequent references were made to September the 11th and the London bombings as the triggers for a marked increase in Islamophobia.
You know something, racism is always been there – we get loads of [abuse] thrown at us, but we just take… at times you really [want to] knock them out, but you just learn to control it. [Male, 15]
I have experienced Islamophobia - it has moved on from 'paki' since 9/11… just another excuse to attack those who are different. [Male, 23]
Islamophobia has primarily manifested itself as an increase in stares and glares, as well as some verbal abuse. Further, some participants described that subtle body language and remarks are felt more than explicit physical or institutional Islamophobia. Other studies confirm the same pattern of behaviour, however, they also show that there are also physical manifestations of Islamophobia.
My friend, he's got a beard… he looks like a proper Taliban type guy, he was stopped at the airport and questioned… it's just 'cos he looks Muslim and has a beard, the media have made this image and people get scared of him… it's a shame to be honest. [Male, 24]
After the 7/7 bombings I've had loads of abuse especially on the streets, things like 'paki' are normal, but this is different, once a bunch of guys shouted and said 'let's get her', I was really scared. I think also at airports it's quite bad, it feels like you are being stared at a lot more, and they look at you shoes like you're [going to] have a bomb there or something. [Female, 21]
If you're walking down the street you definitely know you are being stared at… it's worse since that stuff in London happened. [Male, 16]
I think it affects personal relationships a lot, I'll give you an example. I worked in a shop for a while and I wasn't able to make friends because the people looked at me differently and spoke to me in a weird way because I was visibly a Muslim. [Female, 20]
…I wouldn't say I feel it explicitly, its more subtle than that… I had to leave my university because of a political statement I made about Palestine… it's because I am Muslim, if a European guy made the same comment it wouldn't have been the same. [Male, 23]
Not overtly but subtly… you feel it when because people view you and speak to you differently because they have baggage in their views… but I don't feel I am at a disadvantage or that I am being penalised because I am a Muslim. [Female, 27]
Words like 'al-qaeda go home', 'bomb Iraq' have become very frequent. Being in Islamic dress like the hijab or a beard is a sign saying 'abuse me'. After 7/7 I thought to myself 'here we go again' – what kind of impact is this going to have…now we are being questioned 'are you British?', or are you 'Islamic', like we have to prove ourselves. [Male, 24]
My husband has experienced Islamophobia… he looks 'Muslim' because of the his beard. [Female, 42]
I notice that more younger kids, like yobs – they laugh more and tend to look a lot more too. [Female, 35]
Women participants who observe the hijab feel that they have felt an increase in Islamophobic abuse. Others interviewed confirmed this observation.
I feel really bad for girls who wear hijab, 'cos I think they get the worst of it. [Male, 23]
Sometimes when I am going somewhere where I have to wear hijab, I do get the feeling that people around me are staring, I wonder what they are thinking about me… I suppose you have to confident in showing people Islam. [Female. 19]
I was driving in my car and these bunch of idiots kept tailing me – it was basically road rage, I am very sure it is because I wear a hijab, I never had this kind of nonsense before when I never wore a hijab. [Female, 36]
The hijab makes us a target… we stand out and people know we are Muslim straight away. [Female, 42]
They think we are dumb when they see us in hijab… it's the media, a lot of it is their fault. [Female, 25]
I feel people are a lot more wary of me because I wear a niqab [face-covering], and I also have a language problem, it's hard, but I can't stop wearing it, it's my faith. [Female, 24]
Research conducted by the Muslim Women’s Resource Centre (MWRC) and the Muslim Women Talk Campaign in Autumn 2005 in Scotland revealed similar findings. The main findings on Islamophobia are as follows:
There is an increase in abuse and harassment since the London bombings, although this has been higher anyway since September 11th 2001.
'Islamophobic' abuse is on the rise, and is different from 'racist' abuse.
Most of the harassment and abuse is verbal or looks/glares as opposed to physical.
The Muslim community feel safer in Scotland compared with the South of England. Perceptions of safety vary across different parts of Scotland, and from person to person. Women reported feeling uneasy in mainly white areas, but the problem seems to be more significant in Edinburgh and Glasgow than in Dundee.
There is a difference in experiences between Muslim women from urban and rural areas. In rural areas, services are particularly failing and need to be tailored to meet the needs of the community.
Some of the experiences of Muslim women who participated in the research are included below to elucidate further examples of Islamophobia and how it has manifested itself:
I've been noticing a lot more stares and glares, and I know it is because of my hijab [headscarf]. You're constantly wondering, what are they thinking about us? [referring to Muslim women] [Dundee]
A gora [white person] smacked a women on the head because she was wearing a hijab [headscarf], this made me so angry. [Glasgow]
You're instantly linked to terrorists; I was asked what religion I was. I hesitated to say what religion I was 'cos [because] I knew I would be labelled. [Glasgow]
Someone I know, she's a Muslim but she doesn't wear hijab, she's just got an Asian, or even Spanish looking face… she went onto the bus with her young daughter. She went to put her bags in the holder and the bus driver told her she's not allowed to… she thought it must be a new policy… but then she saw white people put their bags down and the driver said nothing… She said she felt so small and humiliated. [Glasgow]
…there was an incident when two young Asian boys got onto a bus and they were carrying rucksacks, the bus driver asked them to get off… then the whole bus clapped… can you imagine what these boys must have felt? [Glasgow]
Headscarves in some people's minds still represent women who are perhaps uneducated, backwards, oppressed by men. [Glasgow]
We are a white Scottish Muslim family, we are harassed and abuse is shouted at us…how can this be defined as 'racism' and put under the same banner? Islamophobia must be recognised as a separate from of religious intolerance. [Edinburgh]
Emerging themes:
- There is awareness that Islamophobia as a form of discrimination stands apart from racism.
- Islamophobia manifests itself in different ways i.e. via stares, glares and body language as well as physical abuse.
- There is a feeling amongst Scottish Muslims that Islamophobia has increased due to misinformation and negative media portrayal.
- Physical markers or display of faith is a catalyst for increased Islamophobic harassment.